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From the Da Vinci code to Galois

In The Da Vinci Code, Dan Brown feels he need to bring in a French cryptologist, Sophie Neveu, to explain the mystery behind this series of numbers:

13 โ€“ 3 โ€“ 2 โ€“ 21 โ€“ 1 โ€“ 1 โ€“ 8 โ€“ 5



The Fibonacci sequence, 1-1-2-3-5-8-13-21-34-55-89-144-โ€ฆ is such that any number in it is the sum of the two previous numbers.

It is the most famous of all integral linear recursive sequences, that is, a sequence of integers

a=(a0,a1,a2,a3,โ€ฆ)

such that there is a monic polynomial with integral coefficients of a certain degree n

f(x)=xn+b1xnโˆ’1+b2xnโˆ’2+โ‹ฏ+bnโˆ’1x+bn

such that for every integer m we have that

am+n+b1am+nโˆ’1+b2am+nโˆ’2+โ‹ฏ+bnโˆ’1am+1+am=0

For the Fibonacci series F=(F0,F1,F2,โ€ฆ), this polynomial can be taken to be x2โˆ’xโˆ’1 because
Fm+2=Fm+1+Fm

The set of all integral linear recursive sequences, letโ€™s call it โ„œ(Z), is a beautiful object of great complexity.

For starters, it is a ring. That is, we can add and multiply such sequences. If

a=(a0,a1,a2,โ€ฆ), and aโ€ฒ=(a0โ€ฒ,a1โ€ฒ,a2โ€ฒ,โ€ฆ) โˆˆโ„œ(Z)

then the sequences

a+aโ€ฒ=(a0+a0โ€ฒ,a1+a1โ€ฒ,a2+a2โ€ฒ,โ€ฆ)andaร—aโ€ฒ=(a0.a0โ€ฒ,a1.a1โ€ฒ,a2.a2โ€ฒ,โ€ฆ)

are again linear recursive. The zero and unit in this ring are the constant sequences 0=(0,0,โ€ฆ) and 1=(1,1,โ€ฆ).

So far, nothing terribly difficult or exciting.

It follows that โ„œ(Z) has a co-unit, that is, a ring morphism

ฯต : โ„œ(Z)โ†’Z

sending a sequence a=(a0,a1,โ€ฆ) to its first entry a0.

Itโ€™s a bit more difficult to see that โ„œ(Z) also has a co-multiplication

ฮ” : โ„œ(Z)โ†’โ„œ(Z)โŠ—Zโ„œ(Z)
with properties dual to those of usual multiplication.

To describe this co-multiplication in general will have to await another post. For now, we will describe it on the easier ring โ„œ(Q) of all rational linear recursive sequences.

For such a sequence q=(q0,q1,q2,โ€ฆ)โˆˆโ„œ(Q) we consider its Hankel matrix. From the sequence q we can form symmetric kร—k matrices such that the opposite i+1-th diagonal consists of entries all equal to qi
Hk(q)=[q0q1q2โ€ฆqkโˆ’1q1q2qkq2qk+1โ‹ฎโ‹ฎqkโˆ’1qkqk+1โ€ฆq2kโˆ’2]
The Hankel matrix of q, H(q) is Hk(q) where k is maximal such that det Hk(q)โ‰ 0, that is, Hk(q)โˆˆGLk(Q).

Let S(q)=(sij) be the inverse of H(q), then the co-multiplication map
ฮ” : โ„œ(Q)โ†’โ„œ(Q)โŠ—โ„œ(Q)
sends the sequence q=(q0,q1,โ€ฆ) to
ฮ”(q)=โˆ‘i,j=0kโˆ’1sij(Diq)โŠ—(Djq)
where D is the shift operator on sequence
D(a0,a1,a2,โ€ฆ)=(a1,a2,โ€ฆ)

If aโˆˆโ„œ(Z) is such that H(a)โˆˆGLk(Z) then the same formula gives ฮ”(a) in โ„œ(Z).

For the Fibonacci sequences F the Hankel matrix is
H(F)=[1112]โˆˆGL2(Z)with inverseS(F)=[2โˆ’1โˆ’11]
and therefore
ฮ”(F)=2FโŠ— Fโ€“DFโŠ—Fโ€“FโŠ—DF+DFโŠ—DF
Thereโ€™s a lot of number theoretic and Galois-information encoded into the co-multiplication on โ„œ(Q).

To see this we will describe the co-multiplication on โ„œ(Qโ€•) where Qโ€• is the field of all algebraic numbers. One can show that

โ„œ(Qโ€•)โ‰ƒ(Qโ€•[Qโ€•ร—โˆ—]โŠ—Qโ€•[d])โŠ•โˆ‘i=0โˆžQโ€•Si

Here, Qโ€•[Qโ€•ร—โˆ—] is the group-algebra of the multiplicative group of non-zero elements xโˆˆQโ€•ร—โˆ— and each x, which corresponds to the geometric sequence x=(1,x,x2,x3,โ€ฆ), is a group-like element
ฮ”(x)=xโŠ—xandฯต(x)=1

Qโ€•[d] is the universal Lie algebra of the 1-dimensional Lie algebra on the primitive element d=(0,1,2,3,โ€ฆ), that is
ฮ”(d)=dโŠ—1+1โŠ—dandฯต(d)=0

Finally, the co-algebra maps on the elements Si are given by
ฮ”(Si)=โˆ‘j=0iSjโŠ—Siโˆ’jandฯต(Si)=ฮด0i

That is, the co-multiplication on โ„œ(Qโ€•) is completely known. To deduce from it the co-multiplication on โ„œ(Q) we have to consider the invariants under the action of the absolute Galois group Gal(Qโ€•/Q) as
โ„œ(Qโ€•)Gal(Qโ€•/Q)โ‰ƒโ„œ(Q)

Unlike the Fibonacci sequence, not every integral linear recursive sequence has an Hankel matrix with determinant ยฑ1, so to determine the co-multiplication on โ„œ(Z) is even a lot harder, as we will see another time.

Reference: Richard G. Larson, Earl J. Taft, โ€˜The algebraic structure of linearly recursive sequences under Hadamard productโ€™

Published in absolute math number theory